Milestones:Commercialization and Industrialization of Photovoltaic Cells, 1959 and Milestones:IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, 1960 - 1984: Difference between pages

From ETHW
(Difference between pages)
No edit summary
 
No edit summary
 
Line 1: Line 1:
== Commercialization and Industrialization of Photovoltaic Cells, 1959-83 ==
== IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, 1960 - 1984 ==


<p>''Sharp Corporation pioneered the development and commercialization of photovoltaic (PV) cells for applications ranging from satellites to lighthouses to residential uses. From the beginning of research into monocrystal PV-cells in 1959, to the mass production of amorphous PV-cells in 1983, this work contributed greatly toward the industrialization of photovoltaic technologies and toward the mitigation of global warming.'' </p>
<p>''In its first quarter century, the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center produced numerous seminal advances having sustained worldwide impact in electrical engineering and computing. Semiconductor device innovations include dynamic random access memory (DRAM), superlattice crystals, and field effect transistor (FET) scaling laws. Computing innovations include reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture, integer programming, amorphous magnetic films for optical storage technology, and thin-film magnetic recording heads.'' </p>


== Location(s) of Milestone plaque(s)  ==
<p>When IBM management decided to create a research organization that was independent of product development, the Watson Research Center was constructed as the headquarters for IBM Research. Throughout its first 25 years of operation, Watson Research Center employees have produced groundbreaking and enduring contributions to information technology, most notably through semiconductor device and computing innovations. </p>


<p>(i) Solar System Group, SHARP Corporation 282-1 Hajikami, Katsuragi-shi, Nara, 639-2198 Japan </p>
<p>Seven of these achievements are especially noteworthy as watershed advances with sustained worldwide impact. Breakthrough innovations in semiconducting devices are dynamic random access memory (DRAM), superlattice crystals, and field effect transistor (FET) scaling laws. Breakthrough innovations in computing are reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture, integer programming, amorphous magnetic films for optical storage technology, and thin-film magnetic recording heads. No other corporate research institution has produced so many important advances in electrical engineering and computing that contributed to both the technical community and the business success of its parent corporation.&nbsp; </p>


<p>Phone: +81-745-65-1161, GPS: N 34.47574, E 135.741507 </p>
<p>These seven noteworthy technical achievements are described in more detail below, including lists of:</p>


<p>(ii) Corporate Research and Development Group, SHARP Corporation 2613-1 Ichinomoto-cho, Tenri-shi, Nara, 632-8567 Japan </p>
<p>1. '''Semiconductor dynamic random access memory (DRAM)''' - the invention of the basic one-transistor dynamic memory cell used worldwide in virtually all modern computers. One-transistor DRAM became the standard of the industry for RAM and enabled the microcomputer revolution. </p>


<p>Phone: +81-743-65-1321, GPS: N 34.620162, E 135.843096 </p>
<p>Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement: </p>


<p>(iii) Head Office, SHARP Corporation 22-22 Nagaike-cho, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8522 Japan </p>
*1982 IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award - Robert Dennard
*1988 National Medal of Technology - Robert Dennard
*1997 Inductee into the National Inventors Hall of Fame - Robert Dennard
*2001 IEEE Edison Medal - Robert Dennard
*2009 IEEE Medal of Honor – Robert Dennard
*2009 NAE Draper Prize – Robert Dennard


<p>Phone: +81-6-6621-1221, GPS: N34.621643, E 135.517143 </p>
<p>Major reference documenting this achievement: </p>


<p>&lt;pIn 1954 three researchers at Bell Laboratories published the results of their discovery of the world’s first practical ‘photovoltaic’ (henceforth abbreviated by ‘PV’) cell which was capable of converting sunlight into electricity, first at 4% and later at 6% conversion-efficiency[1]. In 1959 Sharp Corporation began R&amp;D of silicon monocrystal PV-cells, with mass production starting in 1963[2], and commercialized a variety of mono/multi-crystalline PV-cells for everything from satellites to lighthouses, and industrial applications to residential use[2]. The annual production capacity has since grown to 500 MW with plans to double it to over 1GW by constructing additionally a new big plant in Sakai City in Osaka Prefecture with the start of operations in fiscal 2009, and moreover the cumulative production volume reached to 2GW at the end of 2007 for the first time in the world. It is estimated that the current world’s cumulative production volume is 8GW, meaning that Sharp has produced a full one-quarter of that[3]. </p>
*US Patent 3,387,286, “Field-Effect Transistor Memory,” filed in 1967, issued in 1968


<p>Sharp’s pioneering works of developing and commercializing PV-cells have been achieved mainly in the fields of consumer electronics, public facilities, space satellites, and industrial and residential applications. Especially, untiring efforts of the project teams devoted to the development and implementation of PV-technologies during the long period, ranging from the start of R&amp;D of monocrystal PV-cells in 1959 to the mass production of amorphous PV-cells in 1983, constructed the firm foundation for the industrialization of PV technologies, as described in what follows. </p>
<p>2. '''Semiconductor superlattice (multiple-quantum-well) crystals '''- the semiconductor superlattice is a man-made single-crystal with a periodic one-dimensional structural modification, produced by modulating either the alloy composition or impurity density during thin-film crystal growth. Such structures result in HEMT (high electron mobility transistor effect) transistors, high speed transistors now widely used in wireless telecommunications; room temperature, continuous wave, semiconductor lasers and photo-detectors now used in optical communications; and GMR (giant magnetoresistance) superlattice structures with very high sensitivity, now used for read heads in magnetic recording. </p>


== Consumer Electronics  ==
<p>Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement: </p>


<p>Since Sharp had been traditionally strong at consumer products, the commercialization of PV-cells was initiated in the field of consumer electronics as follows. </p>
*1985 APS Prize for New Materials – Leroy Chang, Leo Esaki, and Raphael Tsu
*1991 IEEE Medal of Honor - Leo Esaki


=== World’s First Transistor Radio  ===
<p>Major references documenting this achievement: </p>


<p>In 1961 Sharp succeeded in developing a prototype PV-cell, which was installed in the world’s first transistor radio BX-381 operating on both PV-cell and battery. </p>
*L. Esaki and R. Tsu, “Superlattice and Negative Differential Conductivity in Semiconductors,” IBM J. Res. Develop. 14, 61 (1970).
*US Patent 3,626,257, “Semiconductor Device with Superlattice Region,” filed in 1969, issued in 1971
*L. Esaki and L. L. Chang, “New Transport Phenomenon in a Semiconductor ‘Superlattice’,” Phys. Rev. Letters 33, 495 (1974)


=== Table Clock  ===
<p>3. '''Field effect transistor (FET) scaling laws''' - a concept of reducing the dimensions of metal-oxide field effect transistors (MOSFETs) and their interconnecting wires, leading to simultaneous improvements in transistor density, switching speed and power dissipation. This theory was presented in the seminal paper published in the IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits in 1974. It is now a “Classic Paper” as recognized by the Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 87, April 1999. The scaling theory has driven miniaturization in the semiconductor industry by giving the industry a roadmap, a method for setting targets and expectations for coming generations of process technology. This roadmap has been followed for over three decades, enabling computing to be portable, from laptops to cell phones to other technological devices. </p>


<p>In 1963 a project team headed by Dr. Kozabro Baba succeeded in mass production of PV-module S-224 which realized cell conversion-efficiency of 8.8%, with much smaller surface area than the conventional one. Using an improved version of this module S-224, Seiko developed the first PVinstalled table clock in 1966. </p>
<p>Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement: </p>


=== The World’s First PV-Installed Calculator and Watch  ===
*1982 IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award - Robert Dennard
*1988 National Medal of Technology - Robert Dennard
*2001 IEEE Edison Medal - Robert Dennard
*2009 IEEE Medal of Honor – Robert Dennard
*2009 NAE Draper Prize – Robert Dennard


<p>In 1976 Sharp developed a more efficient monocrystal silicon PV-module S-225, with cell conversion-efficiency of 10.0%, and installed the cell element of S-255 in calculator EL-8026[5], Seiko’s watch ‘Quarts’(see Fig. 3), and Citizen’s watch ‘Solar Cell’[6] for the fist time in the world. In addition, these modules S-224 and S-225 were also applied as power sources for consumer products, such as </p>
<p>Major references documenting this achievement: </p>


<p>(i) transceivers for Mt. Yalung-Kang (at a height of 8,505m in the Himalayas) Mountaineeing Party of Kyoto University in 1973, </p>
*R. H. Dennard, F. H. Gaensslen, H-N Yu, V. L. Rideout, E. Bassour, and A. R. LeBlanc, “Design of Ion-Implanted MOSFET’s with Very Small Physical Dimensions,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits SC-9, 256 (Oct. 1974)  
*D. L. Critchlow, “MOSFET Scaling – The Driver of VLSI Technology,“ Proc. IEEE 87, 659 (April 1999) (Electronic file: IEEE Proc 1999_Critchlow_FET scaling.pdf)&lt;/p&gt;


<p>(ii) photometers and electronic shutters of cameras, </p>
<p>4. '''Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architecture '''- development and implementation of a computer architecture that significantly increased the speed and efficiency of computers. </p>


<p>(iii) spinning trouble detectors, and </p>
<p>RISC architecture represents a central processing unit (CPU) design strategy emphasizing the insight that simplified instructions, which "do less", may still provide for higher performance if this simplicity can be utilized to make instructions execute very quickly. When first conceived, the RISC concept was contrary to the established direction of the functionally more complex instruction set computer (CISC) architecture. RISC was a fundamentally new concept in system design. Today, RISC microprocessors serve as the engines of most large, powerful computers. </p>


<p>(iv) machinery for safety aid, etc.[7] </p>
<p>In the 1960s and 1970s, instruction sets for computers became more and more complex. In addition to frequently executed primitive instructions, such as add, multiply, shift, etc., computer designers added many extremely complex instructions thought to be necessary for the programmers and for the compilers of the time. These complex instructions were relatively costly in that they required many more circuits and more machine time to execute them. In the mid 1970s, IBM Watson Researchers developed RISC architecture from a detailed study of the trade-offs between high performance machine organization and compiler optimization technology. An appropriately defined set of machine instructions, program controls, and programs produced by a compiler -- carefully designed to exploit the instruction set -- could realize a very high performance processor with relatively few circuits. RISC architecture enabled computers to run twice as fast on the same number of circuits. </p>


=== PV-installed Calculator Business  ===
<p>Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement: </p>


<p>Sharp developed a new ‘ultra violet’ PV-cell on the basis of the cell of S-225 in 1979, which acted on fluorescent light with much reduced surface area. This PV-cell contributed to the commercialization of a series of wallet type PV-installed calculators, such as EL-826, EL-835, EL-838SE, EL-858, EL-867, EL-325, EL-350, EL-355, EL-515, etc., in the early 1980s[8]. Thus, Sharp paved the way for a new business field by introducing wallet type PV-installed calculators. </p>
*1985 IEEE Computer Society Eckert-Mauchly Award - John Cocke
*1987 ACM Turing Award - John Cocke
*1989 IEEE Computer Society Pioneer Award - John Cocke
*1991 National Medal of Technology - John Cocke
*1994 IEEE John von Neumann Medal - John Cocke
*1994 National Medal of Science - John Cocke
*1999 IEEE Computer Society Seymour Cray Computer Sci. &amp; Eng. Award -John Cocke


=== Amorphous PV-cells by Roll-to-Roll Process  ===
<p>Major references documenting this achievement: </p>


<p>By introducing the roll-to-roll double-layer manufacturing process, as shown in Fig. 4, from Sharp-ECD (Energy Conversion Devices) Solar Co., Ltd., established in June 1982 as a joint venture of Sharp and ECD Inc. (USA), Sharp began to produce amorphous PV-cells in 1983, which were installed in different consumer products, such as ‘card-calculators’, watches, etc. The annual production capacity of amorphous PV-cells soon grew to 1.5MW, which induced the commercialization of a sequence of cardcalculators EL-865, EL-875, EL-878, EL-900, etc. It should be added that the mass production of amorphous silicon PV-cells also enabled Sharp to supply thin and ‘printable’ card-calculators to other companies, which yielded a big boom of designed cardcalculators in the mid and late 1980s[9]. </p>
*John Cocke, “The Search for Performance in Scientific Processors,” Turing Acceptance Speech, Comm. ACM 31, 250 (March 1988)  
*John Cocke and V. Markstein, “The evolution of RISC technology at IBM,” IBM J. Res. Develop. 34, 4 (1990)


== Public Facilities  ==
<p>5. '''Integer Programming and Discrete Optimization '''- creation of a general theory of integer programming and its application to particular problems in discrete optimization. </p>


<p>In the early 1960s NEC Corporation was the leading manufacturer in the area of PV-cells in Japan. In fact, as of 1961 NEC’s PV-cells had been installed in all of 6 wireless relay stations and 8 lighthouses in Japan. Thus Sharp made every effort to catch up technological skills of developing high efficiency PVcells. In 1963 a project team headed by Dr. Baba succeeded in developing PV-module S-224&nbsp;which realized cell conversion-efficiency of 8.8% with much smaller surface area than the conventional one, and moreover satisfied the durability test of the Japan Coast Guard. Hence, the Japan Coast Guard adopted Sharp’s PV-arrays composed of this module as power sources for No.1 Tsurumi Light-Buoy of Fig. 5 in Yokohama Port in 1963[10] as well as for Ogami-Jima Lighthouse in Nagasaki Prefecture in 1966[11]. Following these successful PV installations of the Japan Coast Guard, other government agencies and public corporations began to employ Sharp’s PV-cells for different public facilities. Meanwhile, NEC changed the corporate policy to focus its R&amp;D target principally on computer and communication, withdrawing from the R&amp;D of PV-cells. Thus Sharp had attained by the mid 1970s the position as the Japan’s leading manufacturer of PV-cells. According to remarkable progress of cell conversion-efficiency as shown in Fig. 7[12], Sharp’s PV-cells have since been used exclusively for lighthouses/light-buoys, traffic/road management, river/dam control, meteorological observations, aviation safety control, broadcast/wireless relay stations, etc. In what follows, the main focus is on Sharp’s PV-cells used dedicatedly for such public facilities. </p>
<p>Integer programming is used for discrete optimation problems, e.g. airline scheduling, inventory management, military logistics and strategy, cutting stock or paper and similar commodities to fill orders with minimal waste. Mathematical work of this nature has been of major importance to the information procession industry. Because its sources were the realistic problems of manufacturing, transportation, and many other fields of commerce, engineering, and economics, the results were quickly useful and were aimed at economic pay-off. </p>


=== Light-Buoys and Wireless Relay Stations  ===
<p>Integer programming and discrete optimization was one of the first of the sciences in which large scale computation clearly led the way from the beginning. Techniques were developed at IBM Watson for solving certain classes of very large linear programming problems that had been believed to be intractable because of their enormous size. These techniques are now used in dealing with mixed integer – non integer problems, and provide many of the standard techniques used by optimizers. </p>


<p>In 1963 PV-module S-224 satisfied the durability test of the Japan Coast Guard[13], and was installed in the No.1 Tsurumi Light-Buoy of Fig.5 in Yokohama Port[10]. Although at that time Sharp had already provided PVcells for 13 lighthouses and 21 light-buoys, this was the world’s first light-buoy floating on the sea[13]. Subsequently, the same type of PV-arrays were installed in a variety of public facilities, such as (i) light-buoys, not only in Japan but also in Malacca Straits, (ii) wireless relay stations in Australia, Philippines, Africa, etc., and (iii) agricultural spray pumps in Indonesia, etc.[7,14]. </p>
<p>Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement: </p>


=== Lighthouses and Radio/TV Relay Stations  ===
*1984 IEEE Computer Soc. Harry H. Goode Memorial Award - Ralph Gomory
*1984 John von Neumann Theory Prize of INFORMS - Ralph Gomory
*1988 National Medal of Science – Ralph Gomory
*1994 IEEE Honorary Member - Ralph Gomory


<p>In 1966 the Japan Coast Guard installed Sharp’s 225W PV-array constructed of module S-224, the world’s largest array at that time[3,15], in the Ogami-Jima Lighthouse, which was replaced by another array composed of new module S-225 in 1976[14]. </p>
<p>Major references documenting this achievement: </p>


<p>These modules S-224 and S-225 continued to be installed widely in public facilities[12,16], such as (i) lighthouses throughout Japan; i.e. 159W Tsushima-Kuroshima Lighthouse, 590W Kousaki Lighthouse, 546W Shimotsu-Okinoshima Lighthouse, 576W Eboshi Lighthouse, 660W Koshiki-Jima Lighthouse, 590.4W Tsushima Lighthouse, etc., constructed in the late 1960s through the 1970s, (ii) NHK’s radio/TV-broadcasting relay stations (see Fig. 9) in Wakayama, Hiroshima, Hyogo, and Yamanashi Prefectures, (iii) unmanned lighthouses in Malacca Straits (see Fig. 10), etc., and (iv) unmanned signals on a South Africa railroad (see Fig. 11), etc. </p>
*P. C. Gilmore and R. E. Gomory, “A Linear Programming Approach to the Cutting-Stock Problem,” Operations. Res. 9, 849 (1961)  
*P. C. Gilmore and R. E. Gomory, “The Theory and Computation of Knapsack Functions,” Operations. Res. 14, 1045 (1966)  
*Ralph E. Gomory, “Some Polyhedra Related to Combinatorial Problems,” Linear Algebra and Its Applications 2, 451 (1969)


<p>Sharp has since provided PV-arrays for more than 10,000 public facilities, including 8,000 wireless/broadcasting relay stations and telemeters, and 1,900 lighthouses/buoys, among which the Ogami-Jima Lighthouse and the Kousaki Lighthouse, both in Nagasaki Prefecture, had 225W and 590W PV-arrays, the world’s largest as of 1966 and 1974, respectively. Especially, it should be added that through Sharp’s long-term installation of PV-arrays in lighthouses, the Japan’s last resident lighthouse, the Meshima Lighthouse[17] in Nagasaki Prefecture, became unmanned on November 12, 2006. </p>
<p>6. '''Amorphous Magnetic Films for Optical Storage Technology '''- discovery and development of amorphous magnetic materials, the basis of erasable, read-write, optical storage technology, now the foundation of the worldwide magneto-optic disk industry. </p>


=== Public Facilities for Road Management, Meteorological &amp; River/Dam Observation, and Aeronautical Safety  ===
<p>These magnetic materials, paradoxically, have built-in uniaxial magnetic anisotropy, despite being amorphous. Such materials, in thin-film form, are ideal as the magneto-optic storage materials for read/write optical storage systems. </p>


<p>Following PV installations by the Japan Coast Guard, other government offices/agencies and public corporations, such as the Civil Aviation Bureau, the Japan Highway Public Corp., the Japan Meteorological Agency, NHK, electric power companies, etc., employed Sharp’s PV-cells for a wide range of public facilities, such as: </p>
<p>In 1973, IBM Watson scientists published two papers on Amorphous Metallic Films, reporting magnetic anisotropy in thin films of GdCo alloy. These papers identified a major new materials system, as well as a series of fundamental properties of great interest and possible applications. Additional studies were carried out at IBM Research in the 1970s and early 1980s on the basic magnetic structure, the anisotropy, the magnetic coercivity, and the electronic properties of these materials. </p>


<p>(a) aeronautical safety, (b) road &amp; navigation management, (c) meteorological and river/dam observation, and (d) agricultural and environment use, etc. </p>
<p>These discoveries, studies, and publications laid the foundation for the now flourishing industry of erasable, read-write optical storage media. Optical storage systems are now an important area in the computer industry. Many companies world-wide produce optical storage systems (e.g., CD R/W, DVD R/W) based on these materials, making it a multi-billion dollar industry. </p>


<p>In addition, Sharp by itself commercialized PV-installed consumer products, such as road lamps, road signs, road information boards, delineators, raised markers, curb markers, beacon lights, lighting systems, battery chargers for farming and grazing, etc.[12] Specifically, in 1981 modules of S-270A series, i.e. S-270A, S-271A, S-272A, and S-274A, were developed, in which 36 pieces of elements, each with 4 inch diameter, were processed to mold form, as shown in Fig. 12[16]. These PV-modules were very light in weight, and could be installed in elevated places without difficulties. Moreover, they had high reliability even under severe ambient conditions encountered in mountains, deserts, and frigid areas. Thus, modules of S-270A series were installed in a variety of public facilities as follows[16]: (i) Aeronautical Safety: PV-installed systems for aviation safety control, aircraft warning light, beacon light, aeronautical ground light, airway beacon, aeronautical radio, etc., (ii) Road &amp; Navigation Management: PV-installed systems for road lighting, road sign, road information board, delineator, raised marker, curb marker, highway emergency phone, railroad crossing signal, etc. (iii) Meteorological and River Observation: PV-installed telemeters for rainfall and snowfall observation, water-level control of river and dam, etc., and (iv) Agricultural and Environmental Use: PV-installed water-pumping systems for irrigation and drainage, PV-installed electric fencing systems for stock farming, PV-installed solar green housing systems, etc. </p>
<p>Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement: </p>


== Space Satellites  ==
*1992 IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award – Praveen Chaudhari, [[Jerome J. Cuomo|Jerome Cuomo]], and Richard Gambino
*1995 National Medal of Technology - Praveen Chaudhari, Jerome Cuomo, and Richard Gambino


<p>In 1967 another project team headed by Mr. Akio Suzuki began to develop PV-cells dedicatedly for installation in space satellites, and made untiring efforts to construct the manufacturing facilities to satisfy the prescribed tests of NASDA (National Space Development Agency of Japan) concerning (i) withstanding radiation environment, (ii) heat cycle, and (iii) high-temperature and high-humidity storage. Consequently, in 1972 NASDA authorized Sharp as the Japan’s first official manufacturer to supply PVcells, and even after NASDA and ISAS (Institute of Space and Astronautical Science of Japan) were unified into JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency), JAXA has still authorized Sharp as the sole manufacturer of the PV-cells of satellite use. Sharp has since manufactured PV-cells monopolistically for 50 Japanese satellites, and has also provided PV-cells for 110 foreign satellites. In what follows, PV-cells produced by the end of 1983 dedicatedly for satellite use were outlined. </p>
<p>Major references documenting this achievement: </p>


=== NASDA’s Authorization  ===
*P. Chaudhari, J.J. Cuomo, and R.J. Gambino, “Amorphous metallic films for magneto-optic applications,” Appl. Phys. Letters 22, 337 (1973)
*US Patent 3,949,387, “Beam Addressable Film using Amorphous Magnetic Material,” filed in 1972, issued in 1976


<p>In 1967 the project team began to set up the manufacturing process for radiation proof silicon PV-cells of satellite use, until in 1972 Sharp’s PV-cells were authorized as official parts of NASDA’s satellites. In 1974&nbsp;Sharp manufactured PV-cells mounted on the first and second ISS (Ionosphere Sounding Satellites) ever made for practical use in Japan, named ‘Ume No.1’ and ‘Ume No.2’, which were successfully launched in February 1976 and in February 1978, respectively[18]. </p>
<p>7. '''Thin-Film Magnetic Recording Heads''' - innovations in thin-film fabrication processes to realize inductive and magnetoresistive thin-film heads for large scale magnetic storage, significantly increasing the storage density of magnetic recording, and making rapid data access and storage possible on the Internet. </p>


=== Development of Assembly Lines  ===
<p>Since the commercial introduction of the first thin film heads in 1979, magnetic storage bit density has increased by 5 orders of magnitude. Without this capability to store and access, at tremendous speeds, an enormous amount of data on magnetic disk drives, many technologies we now take for granted would not exist, such as desktop and laptop computers, access to enormous libraries of data in fractions of seconds, modern banking systems and automatic teller machines, and, in particular, the Internet. </p>


<p>On commission from NASDA, Sharp devised PV-cells covered with special glass stabilized by cerium micro-sheet in 1975[12], on the basis of which the development of PV-arrays of satellite use started in 1979, and the BLACK, BSFR (Back Surface Field Reflector), and BSR (Back Surface Reflector) PVcells were also developed in 1980 and authorized as official parts of common use for satellites in 1981[18]. Moreover, by subcontract of NASDA, Sharp developed the paddle- and cylinder-type&nbsp;PV-array assembly lines in 1981 and 1982, respectively, and then the lightweight paddle-type assembly line in 1983[18]. </p>
<p>Since the introduction of IBM’s first magnetic disk storage system in 1956, the density of storage and speed of access has continuously improved. A quantum jump in the rate of improvement was enabled by the invention of thin film, read/write magnetic recording heads by scientists at the IBM Watson. They invented entirely new and unique fabrication processes, new designs of both read and write heads, and developed a new concept of mass fabrication of three dimensional objects of magnetic head structures on planar surfaces. These processes produce read/write heads consisting of three dimensional, high aspect ratio structures of magnetic yokes and tightly packed copper coils, with an entire cross section area small than that of a human hair. These inventions permitted the shrinking of the disk size from 12 inches to 1 inch in diameter and the shrinkage of the size of the entire storage device from room-size to credit card-size. </p>


=== PV-Cells of Satellite Use  ===
<p>The total Direct Access Storage Device (DASD) industry revenue, dependent on thin-film magnetic recording heads, is ~$50 Billion/year and, despite the continuous drop in the price of devices, is growing. </p>


<p>Following the Japan’s first and second working satellites ISS ‘Ume No.1’ and ‘Ume No.2’, Sharp manufactured PV-cells for the following 15 satellites in succession by the end of 1983; </p>
<p>Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement: </p>


*EXOS-A ‘Kyokko’ in 1975, which was launched in January 1978,
*1984 Electrochemical Society Electrodeposition Division Research Award – Lubomyr Romankiw and Robert J. von Gutfeld
*ECS ‘Ayame’ in 1976, which was launched in February 1979,
*1992 IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award – David Thompson
*EXOS-B ‘Jikiken’ in 1977, which was launched in September 1982,
*1994 IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award – Lubomyr Romankiw
*CORSA-B ‘Hakucho’ in 1977 , which was launched in February 1979,
*ETS-Ⅲ‘Kiku N0.3’ in 1978, which was launched in September 1982,
*ETS-Ⅳ‘Kiku No.4’ in 1978, which was launched in February 1981,
*GMS- Ⅱ ‘Himawari No.2’ in 1978, which was launched in August 1981,
*TTS ‘Tansei No.4’ in 1979, which was launched in February 1980
*ASTRO-B ‘Temma’ in 1981, which was launched in February 1983,
*MOS-1 in 1981, which was launched in February 1987,
*EXOS-C ‘Oozora’ in 1982, which was launched in February 1984,
*MS-T5 ‘Sakigake’ in 1982, which was launched in January 1985,
*PLANET-A ‘Suisei’ in 1982, which was launched in August 1985,
*MOS-1‘Momo’ in 1982, which was launched in February 1987,
*GMS-3 ‘Himawari No.3’ in 1983, which was launched in August 1984.


== Residential and Industrial Applications  ==
<p>Major references documenting this achievement: </p>


<p>Due to the oil crisis of 1973, Japan’s R&amp;D program ‘Sunshine Project’ commenced in 1974, aiming at reducing manufacturing costs of PV-cells to enhance the spread of residential and industrial PV systems. Sharp participated in this national Project as a PV manufacturer, through which a sequence of highefficiency PV-modules S-225 (cell conversion-efficiency of 10.0%), S-260 (ibid. 12.2%), S-270A (ibid. 12.6%), and S-290 (ibid. 13.0%) were commercialized in 1976 through 1981. In 1980 NEDO (New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization), an independent government agency of Japan, was established to enhance the developmengt of technologies for using renewable power sources (solar, wind, biomass). In 1981 Sharp’s PV-module S-290 satisfying the NEDO specification was employed for official PV-installations on roofs of residential and complex houses as well as in distributed and centralized power stations. Sharp has since commercialized various kinds of high-efficiency PV-modules for power generation systems, including monocrystal silicon PV-module NRS-LBSF developed in 1992, which achieved the cell conversion-efficiency of 22.0%, the world’s highest of PV-cells of mass production at that time[18]. </p>
*US Patent 3,908,194, “Integrated Magnetoresistive Read, Inductive Write, Batch Fabricated Magnetic Head,” filed in 1974, issued in 1975
*US Patent 4,295,173, “Thin Film Inductive Transducer,” filed in 1979, issued in 1981 *L. T. Romankiw, “Electrodeposited Magnetic Thin Film Heads: A Quantum Jump for Magnetic Recording; Immense Impact on Development of Electrochemical Technology,” Plenary Address at 8th International Symposium on Magnetic Materials, Process and Devices, during 206th Meeting of The Electrochemical Society (October 2004) (Published as IBM Research Report RC24133, March 20, 1006)


<p>In what follows, residential and industrial applications of Sharp’s PV-cells are outlined. </p>
<p>'''The plaque may be viewed at: 1101 Kitchawan Road, Route 134, Town of Yorktown, Yorktown Heights, NY 10598-0218''' </p>


=== Design of PV-Installed Power System  ===
<p>'''GPS coordinates: Latitude: 41o 12’ 40” <br>Longitude: -73º 48’ 11” <br>''' </p>
 
<p>There were a variety of PV-installed power systems for residential and industrial applications, for each of which a storage battery was needed. In the design of such a power system, it was necessary to calculate the capacities of the installed PV-cells and the storage battery according to the load’s average power consumption and voltage. The calculation had to be based on the annual sunshine hours and the level of irradiation. Thus Sharp investigated annual data of sunshine hours and levels of irradiation at a number of places inside and outside Japan. Using these meteorological data, Sharp devised a procedure for calculating the PV-cells’ power generation capacity at a scheduled installation site. On the other hand, in order to maintain uninterrupted power supply, optimal design of the storage battery capacity is also mandatory, for which Sharp also provided a calculation procedure[14]. Thus, given a PV-installation site, Sharp could provide the user with the necessary calculation tool of setting up an optimal PV-installed system with the use of these procedures. </p>
 
=== Residential and Industrial Applications  ===
 
<p>In the mid 1970s the PV applications were still limited to use in mountainous areas, deserts, and isolated areas, due to the high cost of commercial electricity in these areas. However, in the late 1970s the PV-cells began to be used increasingly for residential and industrial equipments (for example, see Fig. 16), according as not only production costs of PV-cells decreased, but also their conversion-efficiency grew drastically. </p>
 
<p>In the early 1980s Sharp’s PV-modules were adopted for residential and industrial applications in a variety of ways, from small power systems, such as: </p>
 
*household equipments, such as TVs, fluorescent lamp, refrigerator, pump, etc.,
*small clinic systems, such as medical lighting system, refrigerator to store medicine and serum, communication system to contact other clinics, etc.,
*indoor lighting systems, such as outdoor/indoor lighting for home/office use, outdoor sign, tower light, etc.,
 
<p>to large power systems, such as: </p>
 
*building-integrated PV systems (see Fig. 17)
*wireless/microwave/broadcasting relay stations,
*multiple unit housing power stations,
*distributed and centralized remote power plants,
*land transportation control, such as barrier flash, electrically controlled variable sign, emergency telephone, guide sign, warning sign, etc.,
*water pumping system for irrigation (see Fig. 18), greenhouse, livestock, etc.
 
<p>All of these Sharp’s PV-installed power systems operated on modules NT-101/102 and S-271A/272A/274A series, which incorporated efficient and economic silicon wafers (100mm in diameter), and could withstand severe weather conditions on the sea or in mountain, desert, and isolated areas. At that time, a typical example of small PV-installed power system was the one composed of: </p>
 
*2 NT-102 modules,
*a lead acid automobile battery (12V,100AH),
*a controller, a TV set (12V,18W), and two fluorescent lamps (12V, 20W);
 
<p>while a typical example of large PV-installed power system was the one composed of: </p>
 
*30 NT-101 modules,
*a Pb-Ca battery (120V, 700AH),
*a controller (overload protection),
*an inverter (transistor type 2kW capacity),
*a TV set (18”,71W), a refrigerator (31kWh/W), 8 fluorescent lamps, a washing machine, a toaster (500W), a water pump (depth 7m, capacity 2m3/day), and a coffee pot (500W).
 
<p>Sharp’s pioneering works of commercializing and developing PVcells have been achieved in the fields of consumer electronics, public facilities, space satellites, and residential and industrial applications. Distinctive features of these achievements are listed in what follows: </p>
 
=== PV-Installed Calculator Business  ===
 
<p>As a pioneer who had commercialized numbers of calculators, Sharp paved the way for a new phase of calculator business by installing PV-cells in calculators. Specifically, Sharp released the world’s first PV-installed calculator EL-8026 in 1976 using PV-cell S-225, Following this calculator, Sharp developed ‘ultra violet’ PV-cell acting on fluorescent light with much reduced surface area, which yielded a series of wallet type PV-installed calculators EL-826, EL-835, EL-838SE, and so forth, in the early 1980s,&nbsp;and hence Sharp opened up a new business of wallet type PV-installed calculators. Furthermore, by adopting the roll-to-roll process technology from ECD Inc. (USA), Sharp initiated mass production of amorphous PVcells in 1983, which made it possible to commercialize a new type of PV-installed ‘card-calculators’ with thickness of 1.6mm, which created a new worldwide boom of card-calculators[9], </p>
 
=== PV-Installation in Lighthouses  ===
 
<p>The project team headed by Dr. K. Baba succeeded in developing PV-module S-224 in 1963, which realized higher conversion-efficiency with much smaller surface area than the conventional one. Thus the Japan Coast Guard has since installed Sharp’s PV-arrays in more than 1,900 lighthouses/buoys. Especially, Sharp provided 225W and 590W PV-arrays for the Ogami-Jima Lighthouse and the Kousaki Lighthouse, both in Nagasaki Prefecture, in 1966 and 1974, respectively, each the world’s largest at that time. Moreover, Japan’s last manned lighthouse, the Meshima Lighhouse[17] in Nagasaki Prefecture, went unmanned as it was equipped with Sharp’s PV-arrays. </p>
 
=== Space Satellites Authorized by NASDA  ===
 
<p>Owing to untiring efforts of the project team headed by Mr. A. Suzuki, Sharp’s manufacturing facilities passed NASDA’s tests of (i) withstanding radiation environment, (ii) heat cycle, and (iii) hightemperature high-humidity storage, until in 1972 Sharp’s PV-cells were authorized to be used for NASDA’s satellites,Sharp has since manufactured monopolistically PV-arrays for all 50 Japanese satellites, and has also provided them for 110 foreign ones. </p>
 
<p>It should be stressed here that on commission from NASDA, Sharp devised specific PV-cells covered with special glass stabilized by cerium micro-sheet as well as BLACK, BSFR, and BSR types of PV-cells dedicatedly for satellite use in the late 1970s. Moreover, by subcontract of NASDA, Sharp developed the paddle- and cylinder-type assembly methods of PV-arrays in 1981 and 1982. Thus Sharp’s PV-technologies contributed greatly to the progress of space engineering both nationally and internationally. </p>
 
== Public Facilities  ==
 
<p>Following the Japan Coast Guard, other government offices/agencies and public corporations, such as the Civil Aviation Bureau, the Japan Highway Public Corp., the Japan Meteorological Agency, NHK, electric power companies, etc., began to adopt Sharp’s PV-arrays composed of modules of S-224, S-225, S-260, and S-270A for facilities of aeronautical safety, telemeters of measuring rainfall/snowfall and water level of river/lake, and wireless/broadcasting relay stations, etc., according to growing efficiency and reliability of PV-cells. Sharp has since provided PV-arrays as the leading manufacturer for more than 8,000 facilities of aeronautical safety, telemeters, and wireless/broadcasting relay stations inside and outside Japan. </p>
 
== Effects of Sunshine/NEDO Project  ==
 
<p>In 1974 Sharp participated in Japanese national R&amp;D program ‘Sunshine Project’ as a PV-manufacturer, which made it possible to commercialize a sequence of high-power PV-modules S-225, S-260, S-270A, until PV-module S-290 (cell conversion-efficiency; 13.0%) satisfying the NEDO’s specification was attained in 1981, which was employed for the Project’s official PV-installation on roofs of residential and complex houses (see Fig. 16) as well as in distributed/centralized power stations. Moreover, based on these R&amp;D achievements derived in ‘Sunshine Project’, Sharp commercialized a variety of high-power PV-modules, including monocrystal silicon PV-module NRS-LBSF developed in 1992, which realized cell conversion-efficiency of 22.0%, the world’s highest of all PV-cells of mass production at that time. </p>
 
<p>In conclusion, untiring efforts of Sharp’s project teams devoted to the development and implementation of PV-technologies during the long period, ranging from the start of R&amp;D of monocrystal PV-cells in 1959 to the mass production of amorphous PV-cells in 1983, constructed the firm foundation for the industrialization of PV technologies. </p>
 
== Appendix  ==
 
<p>Reference[12] (Attachments 3), Reference[13] (Attachment 4), Reference[14], and Reference[18] (Attachment 6) were written in Japanese, for which English summaries are added in this Appendix. </p>
 
<p>1. Reference[12] (Attachment 3): </p>
 
*Electronic Parts Division, Sharp Corp.(ed.): Summary of Sharp’s Solar Cells, 1991 (in Japanese). This booklet consists of the following contents:
 
*History of PV-cells
*History of Sharp’s PV-cells
*Summary of Sharp’s PV-cells
*1 Preface
*2 Summary and present status of PV-cells
 
*(1) What is a PV-cell
*(2) Materials of PV-cells
*(3) Producing process of Silicon PV-cells
*(4) Structure and fundamental characteristics of PV-cells
 
*3 Trend of the enhancement of efficiency of PV-cells
 
*(1) PV-cells for satellites
*(2) Terrestrial PV-cells
 
*4 Applications of PV-cells
 
*(1) PV-cells for satellites
*(2) Systems at large of terrestrial PV-cells
*(3) PV-systems for road management
*(4) PV-systems for events
*(5) PV-cells for consumer products
 
*5 Conclusion
 
<p>Each Section outlines the process adopted by Sharp for R&amp;D on PV-technologies, typical examples of developed products with photos, and their features of specifications and performances. </p>
 
<p>2. Reference [13] (Attachment 4): </p>
 
*K.Kimura and A.Negoro: “Solar cell for light buoy, first applied in the world”, Sharp Technical Journal, pp. 88-91, vol. 2, no. 2, 1963 (in Japanese).
 
<p>Abstract: </p>
 
<p>This paper briefed the results of the joint R&amp;D with the Japan Coast Guard. As a result of one and half years’ field tests on the sea jointly with the Department of Lighthouse, the Japan Coast Guard, using Sharp’s PV-module S-224, all of the quality, reliability, and efficiency of PVmodule S-224 were proven. Hence the Japan Coast Guard decided to adopt Sharp’s PV-array composed of module S-224, which was successfully installed in the No. 1 Tsurumi Light-Buoy in Yokohama Port on May 24, 1963. Although PV-cells had been installed so far in 13 lighthouses and 21 light-buoys, the No. 1 Tsunami Light-Buoy was the world’s first one floating on the sea. </p>
 
<p>3. Reference [14]: </p>
 
*H.Watanabe: “Development story of PV systems”, ibid., no. 98, pp. 4-12, Nov. 2008 (in Japanese). See http://www.sharp.co.jp/corporate/rd/33/pdf/98_p4.pdf
 
<p>Abstract: </p>
 
<p>This article outlined Sharp’s 50 years’ story of developing PV systems. </p>
 
<p>Contents: </p>
 
*1 Birth of PV-cells: Discovery of fundamental principle of PV-cell in 1839; discovery of the world’s first practical PV-cell in 1953 and 1954 by C.S.Fuller, G.Person, and D.M.Chappin at Bell Lab; story of the 3rd World Congress of PV-cell (WCPEC 3).
*2 Challenging of Sharp: Story of developing PV-modules of S-224 and S-225; Formula of setting up a PV-system at a place on the basis of its sunshine data and meteorological data.
*3 Era of calculator and watch: Story of commercializing PV-installed consumer products, such as clock, watch, calculator, camera, etc.
*4 Start of Sunshine Project: Story of Sharp’s activities in the national program of ‘Sunshine Project’.
*5 Era of developing technologies: Transition of cell conversion-efficiency of Sharp’s PV-cells; Solar Car Race WSC in Australia in 1987: 150W PV power systems set up in Thailand, The world’s first power system for fish farming.
*6 Residential system (1): NEDO’s projects of PV-installed residential houses; 1MW centralized power station in Saijo City.
*7 Residential system (2): Granted project of PV-power generating system for residential use
*8 Conclusion: New business of PV-power generation
 
<p>4. Reference [18] (Attachment 6): </p>
 
*A.Suzuki; “History of Sharp’s PV-cells”, private communication, March 17, 2005.
 
<p>Abstract: </p>
 
<p>This article consists of a detailed chronological table of Sharp’s year-on-year historic data of PV products and technologies developed for terrestrial and space PV-cells. These precious data were collected by Mr. A. Suzuki, the project leader of developing PV-cells for satellite use. </p>


== Map ==
== Map ==


{{#display_map:34.47574, 135.741507~ ~ ~ ~ ~SHARP Corporation, Katsuragi-shi, Nara, Japan|height=250|zoom=10|static=yes|center=34.47574, 135.741507}}
{{#display_map:41.216193, -73.806002~ ~ ~ ~ ~Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY|height=250|zoom=10|static=yes|center=41.216193, -73.806002}}


[[Category:Energy|Photovoltaic]] [[Category:Power generation|Photovoltaic]] [[Category:Solar power generation|Photovoltaic]]
[[Category:Computing_and_electronics|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Computer_architecture|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Semiconductor_devices|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Semiconductor_memory|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:FET_circuits|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Transistors|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Magnetic_materials|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Optimization_&_minimization|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Profession|{{PAGENAME}}]]

Revision as of 18:39, 6 January 2015

IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, 1960 - 1984

In its first quarter century, the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center produced numerous seminal advances having sustained worldwide impact in electrical engineering and computing. Semiconductor device innovations include dynamic random access memory (DRAM), superlattice crystals, and field effect transistor (FET) scaling laws. Computing innovations include reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture, integer programming, amorphous magnetic films for optical storage technology, and thin-film magnetic recording heads.

When IBM management decided to create a research organization that was independent of product development, the Watson Research Center was constructed as the headquarters for IBM Research. Throughout its first 25 years of operation, Watson Research Center employees have produced groundbreaking and enduring contributions to information technology, most notably through semiconductor device and computing innovations.

Seven of these achievements are especially noteworthy as watershed advances with sustained worldwide impact. Breakthrough innovations in semiconducting devices are dynamic random access memory (DRAM), superlattice crystals, and field effect transistor (FET) scaling laws. Breakthrough innovations in computing are reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture, integer programming, amorphous magnetic films for optical storage technology, and thin-film magnetic recording heads. No other corporate research institution has produced so many important advances in electrical engineering and computing that contributed to both the technical community and the business success of its parent corporation. 

These seven noteworthy technical achievements are described in more detail below, including lists of:

1. Semiconductor dynamic random access memory (DRAM) - the invention of the basic one-transistor dynamic memory cell used worldwide in virtually all modern computers. One-transistor DRAM became the standard of the industry for RAM and enabled the microcomputer revolution.

Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement:

  • 1982 IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award - Robert Dennard
  • 1988 National Medal of Technology - Robert Dennard
  • 1997 Inductee into the National Inventors Hall of Fame - Robert Dennard
  • 2001 IEEE Edison Medal - Robert Dennard
  • 2009 IEEE Medal of Honor – Robert Dennard
  • 2009 NAE Draper Prize – Robert Dennard

Major reference documenting this achievement:

  • US Patent 3,387,286, “Field-Effect Transistor Memory,” filed in 1967, issued in 1968

2. Semiconductor superlattice (multiple-quantum-well) crystals - the semiconductor superlattice is a man-made single-crystal with a periodic one-dimensional structural modification, produced by modulating either the alloy composition or impurity density during thin-film crystal growth. Such structures result in HEMT (high electron mobility transistor effect) transistors, high speed transistors now widely used in wireless telecommunications; room temperature, continuous wave, semiconductor lasers and photo-detectors now used in optical communications; and GMR (giant magnetoresistance) superlattice structures with very high sensitivity, now used for read heads in magnetic recording.

Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement:

  • 1985 APS Prize for New Materials – Leroy Chang, Leo Esaki, and Raphael Tsu
  • 1991 IEEE Medal of Honor - Leo Esaki

Major references documenting this achievement:

  • L. Esaki and R. Tsu, “Superlattice and Negative Differential Conductivity in Semiconductors,” IBM J. Res. Develop. 14, 61 (1970).
  • US Patent 3,626,257, “Semiconductor Device with Superlattice Region,” filed in 1969, issued in 1971
  • L. Esaki and L. L. Chang, “New Transport Phenomenon in a Semiconductor ‘Superlattice’,” Phys. Rev. Letters 33, 495 (1974)

3. Field effect transistor (FET) scaling laws - a concept of reducing the dimensions of metal-oxide field effect transistors (MOSFETs) and their interconnecting wires, leading to simultaneous improvements in transistor density, switching speed and power dissipation. This theory was presented in the seminal paper published in the IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits in 1974. It is now a “Classic Paper” as recognized by the Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 87, April 1999. The scaling theory has driven miniaturization in the semiconductor industry by giving the industry a roadmap, a method for setting targets and expectations for coming generations of process technology. This roadmap has been followed for over three decades, enabling computing to be portable, from laptops to cell phones to other technological devices.

Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement:

  • 1982 IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award - Robert Dennard
  • 1988 National Medal of Technology - Robert Dennard
  • 2001 IEEE Edison Medal - Robert Dennard
  • 2009 IEEE Medal of Honor – Robert Dennard
  • 2009 NAE Draper Prize – Robert Dennard

Major references documenting this achievement:

  • R. H. Dennard, F. H. Gaensslen, H-N Yu, V. L. Rideout, E. Bassour, and A. R. LeBlanc, “Design of Ion-Implanted MOSFET’s with Very Small Physical Dimensions,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits SC-9, 256 (Oct. 1974)
  • D. L. Critchlow, “MOSFET Scaling – The Driver of VLSI Technology,“ Proc. IEEE 87, 659 (April 1999) (Electronic file: IEEE Proc 1999_Critchlow_FET scaling.pdf)</p>

4. Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) architecture - development and implementation of a computer architecture that significantly increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

RISC architecture represents a central processing unit (CPU) design strategy emphasizing the insight that simplified instructions, which "do less", may still provide for higher performance if this simplicity can be utilized to make instructions execute very quickly. When first conceived, the RISC concept was contrary to the established direction of the functionally more complex instruction set computer (CISC) architecture. RISC was a fundamentally new concept in system design. Today, RISC microprocessors serve as the engines of most large, powerful computers.

In the 1960s and 1970s, instruction sets for computers became more and more complex. In addition to frequently executed primitive instructions, such as add, multiply, shift, etc., computer designers added many extremely complex instructions thought to be necessary for the programmers and for the compilers of the time. These complex instructions were relatively costly in that they required many more circuits and more machine time to execute them. In the mid 1970s, IBM Watson Researchers developed RISC architecture from a detailed study of the trade-offs between high performance machine organization and compiler optimization technology. An appropriately defined set of machine instructions, program controls, and programs produced by a compiler -- carefully designed to exploit the instruction set -- could realize a very high performance processor with relatively few circuits. RISC architecture enabled computers to run twice as fast on the same number of circuits.

Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement:

  • 1985 IEEE Computer Society Eckert-Mauchly Award - John Cocke
  • 1987 ACM Turing Award - John Cocke
  • 1989 IEEE Computer Society Pioneer Award - John Cocke
  • 1991 National Medal of Technology - John Cocke
  • 1994 IEEE John von Neumann Medal - John Cocke
  • 1994 National Medal of Science - John Cocke
  • 1999 IEEE Computer Society Seymour Cray Computer Sci. & Eng. Award -John Cocke

Major references documenting this achievement:

  • John Cocke, “The Search for Performance in Scientific Processors,” Turing Acceptance Speech, Comm. ACM 31, 250 (March 1988)
  • John Cocke and V. Markstein, “The evolution of RISC technology at IBM,” IBM J. Res. Develop. 34, 4 (1990)

5. Integer Programming and Discrete Optimization - creation of a general theory of integer programming and its application to particular problems in discrete optimization.

Integer programming is used for discrete optimation problems, e.g. airline scheduling, inventory management, military logistics and strategy, cutting stock or paper and similar commodities to fill orders with minimal waste. Mathematical work of this nature has been of major importance to the information procession industry. Because its sources were the realistic problems of manufacturing, transportation, and many other fields of commerce, engineering, and economics, the results were quickly useful and were aimed at economic pay-off.

Integer programming and discrete optimization was one of the first of the sciences in which large scale computation clearly led the way from the beginning. Techniques were developed at IBM Watson for solving certain classes of very large linear programming problems that had been believed to be intractable because of their enormous size. These techniques are now used in dealing with mixed integer – non integer problems, and provide many of the standard techniques used by optimizers.

Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement:

  • 1984 IEEE Computer Soc. Harry H. Goode Memorial Award - Ralph Gomory
  • 1984 John von Neumann Theory Prize of INFORMS - Ralph Gomory
  • 1988 National Medal of Science – Ralph Gomory
  • 1994 IEEE Honorary Member - Ralph Gomory

Major references documenting this achievement:

  • P. C. Gilmore and R. E. Gomory, “A Linear Programming Approach to the Cutting-Stock Problem,” Operations. Res. 9, 849 (1961)
  • P. C. Gilmore and R. E. Gomory, “The Theory and Computation of Knapsack Functions,” Operations. Res. 14, 1045 (1966)
  • Ralph E. Gomory, “Some Polyhedra Related to Combinatorial Problems,” Linear Algebra and Its Applications 2, 451 (1969)

6. Amorphous Magnetic Films for Optical Storage Technology - discovery and development of amorphous magnetic materials, the basis of erasable, read-write, optical storage technology, now the foundation of the worldwide magneto-optic disk industry.

These magnetic materials, paradoxically, have built-in uniaxial magnetic anisotropy, despite being amorphous. Such materials, in thin-film form, are ideal as the magneto-optic storage materials for read/write optical storage systems.

In 1973, IBM Watson scientists published two papers on Amorphous Metallic Films, reporting magnetic anisotropy in thin films of GdCo alloy. These papers identified a major new materials system, as well as a series of fundamental properties of great interest and possible applications. Additional studies were carried out at IBM Research in the 1970s and early 1980s on the basic magnetic structure, the anisotropy, the magnetic coercivity, and the electronic properties of these materials.

These discoveries, studies, and publications laid the foundation for the now flourishing industry of erasable, read-write optical storage media. Optical storage systems are now an important area in the computer industry. Many companies world-wide produce optical storage systems (e.g., CD R/W, DVD R/W) based on these materials, making it a multi-billion dollar industry.

Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement:

  • 1992 IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award – Praveen Chaudhari, Jerome Cuomo, and Richard Gambino
  • 1995 National Medal of Technology - Praveen Chaudhari, Jerome Cuomo, and Richard Gambino

Major references documenting this achievement:

  • P. Chaudhari, J.J. Cuomo, and R.J. Gambino, “Amorphous metallic films for magneto-optic applications,” Appl. Phys. Letters 22, 337 (1973)
  • US Patent 3,949,387, “Beam Addressable Film using Amorphous Magnetic Material,” filed in 1972, issued in 1976

7. Thin-Film Magnetic Recording Heads - innovations in thin-film fabrication processes to realize inductive and magnetoresistive thin-film heads for large scale magnetic storage, significantly increasing the storage density of magnetic recording, and making rapid data access and storage possible on the Internet.

Since the commercial introduction of the first thin film heads in 1979, magnetic storage bit density has increased by 5 orders of magnitude. Without this capability to store and access, at tremendous speeds, an enormous amount of data on magnetic disk drives, many technologies we now take for granted would not exist, such as desktop and laptop computers, access to enormous libraries of data in fractions of seconds, modern banking systems and automatic teller machines, and, in particular, the Internet.

Since the introduction of IBM’s first magnetic disk storage system in 1956, the density of storage and speed of access has continuously improved. A quantum jump in the rate of improvement was enabled by the invention of thin film, read/write magnetic recording heads by scientists at the IBM Watson. They invented entirely new and unique fabrication processes, new designs of both read and write heads, and developed a new concept of mass fabrication of three dimensional objects of magnetic head structures on planar surfaces. These processes produce read/write heads consisting of three dimensional, high aspect ratio structures of magnetic yokes and tightly packed copper coils, with an entire cross section area small than that of a human hair. These inventions permitted the shrinking of the disk size from 12 inches to 1 inch in diameter and the shrinkage of the size of the entire storage device from room-size to credit card-size.

The total Direct Access Storage Device (DASD) industry revenue, dependent on thin-film magnetic recording heads, is ~$50 Billion/year and, despite the continuous drop in the price of devices, is growing.

Major IEEE and other awards recognizing this achievement:

  • 1984 Electrochemical Society Electrodeposition Division Research Award – Lubomyr Romankiw and Robert J. von Gutfeld
  • 1992 IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award – David Thompson
  • 1994 IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award – Lubomyr Romankiw

Major references documenting this achievement:

  • US Patent 3,908,194, “Integrated Magnetoresistive Read, Inductive Write, Batch Fabricated Magnetic Head,” filed in 1974, issued in 1975
  • US Patent 4,295,173, “Thin Film Inductive Transducer,” filed in 1979, issued in 1981 *L. T. Romankiw, “Electrodeposited Magnetic Thin Film Heads: A Quantum Jump for Magnetic Recording; Immense Impact on Development of Electrochemical Technology,” Plenary Address at 8th International Symposium on Magnetic Materials, Process and Devices, during 206th Meeting of The Electrochemical Society (October 2004) (Published as IBM Research Report RC24133, March 20, 1006)

The plaque may be viewed at: 1101 Kitchawan Road, Route 134, Town of Yorktown, Yorktown Heights, NY 10598-0218

GPS coordinates: Latitude: 41o 12’ 40”
Longitude: -73º 48’ 11”

Map

Loading map...
Retrieved from "https://ethw.org/w/index.php?title=Milestones:Commercialization_and_Industrialization_of_Photovoltaic_Cells,_1959&oldid=109712"

Powered by MediaWiki
Powered by Semantic MediaWiki